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<title>Harun al-Rashid</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Harun al-Rashid</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about fifth Abbasid caliph. For other uses, see <a href="Haroon_Rashid_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Haroon Rashid (disambiguation)">Haroon Rashid</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Harun al-Rashid<br><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">هَارُون ٱلرَّشِيد</span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><i><a href="List_of_caliphs" title="List of caliphs">Caliph</a></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span typeof="mw:File"></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> of Harun al-Rashid, minted in <a href="Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, 184 AH (800–801 AD)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">5th <a href="Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> of the <a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">14 September 786 – 24 March 809</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">Al-Hadi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Al-Amin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">17 March 763 or February 766<br><a href="Ray%2C_Iran" title="Ray, Iran">Ray</a>, <a href="Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a>, Abbasid Caliphate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">24 March 809<span style="display:none">(809-03-24)</span> (aged 43)<br><a href="Tus%2C_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>, <a href="Greater_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, Abbasid Caliphate</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label">Tomb of Harun al-Rashid in <a href="Imam_Reza_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Reza Mosque">Imam Reza Mosque</a>, <a href="Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, Iran</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Consorts</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;">

<ul><li><a href="Zubaidah_bint_Ja'far" title="Zubaidah bint Ja'far">Zubaidah bint Ja'far</a></li>

<li>Azizah bint Ghitrif</li>

<li>Ghadir</li>

<li><a href="Umm_Muhammad_bint_Salih" title="Umm Muhammad bint Salih">Umm Muhammad bint Salih</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasa_bint_Sulayman" title="Abbasa bint Sulayman">Abbasa bint Sulayman</a></li>

<li>Jurashiyyah al-Uthmanniyah</li>

<li>Hailanah</li>

<li><a href="Dananir_al_Barmakiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dananir al Barmakiyya">Dananir</a></li>

<li><a href="Marajil" title="Marajil">Marajil</a></li>

<li>Qasif</li>

<li><a href="Maridah_bint_Shabib" title="Maridah bint Shabib">Maridah bint Shabib</a></li>

<li><a href="Inan_bint_Abdallah" title="Inan bint Abdallah">Inan bint Abdallah</a></li>

<li>Ghadid</li>

<li>Shikl</li>

<li>Shadhr</li>

<li>Hilanah</li>

<li>Sahdhrah</li>

<li>Rawah</li>

<li>Dawaj</li>

<li>Kitman</li>

<li>Hulab</li>

<li>Irabah</li>

<li>Rahiq</li>

<li>Samandal</li>

<li>Zinah</li>

<li>Qaina</li>

<li>Shajw</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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<li><a href="Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">Al-Qasim</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">Al-Mu'tasim</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Abdan ibn Harun al-Rashid</li>

<li>Sukaynah bint Harun al-Rashid</li>

<li><a href="#Family">See more below</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn <a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Muḥammad</a> ar-Rāshīd</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Al-Mahdi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Al-Khayzuran" title="Al-Khayzuran">Al-Khayzuran</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn Muḥammad ar-Rāshīd</b> (<a href="Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أَبُو جَعْفَر هَارُون ٱبْنِ مُحَمَّد ٱلْمَهْدِيّ</span>, <small><a href="Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Abū Ja'far Hārūn ibn Muḥammad al-Mahdī</i></span>), or simply <b>Hārūn ibn al-Mahdī</b> (Arabic: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">هَارُون ٱبْنِ ٱلْمَهْدِيّ</span>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 763</span> or 766 – 24 March 809), famously known as <b>Hārūn al-Rāshīd</b> (Arabic: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">هَارُون ٱلرَّشِيد</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hārūn ar-Rashīd</i></span>), was the fifth <a href="Abbasid_caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliph">Abbasid caliph</a> of the <a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, reigning from September 786 until his death in March 809. His reign is traditionally regarded to be the beginning of the <a href="Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. His <a href="Laqab" class="mw-redirect" title="Laqab">epithet</a> <i>al-Rashid</i> translates to "the Just", "the Upright", or "the Rightly-Guided".

</p><p>Harun established the legendary library <a href="House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">Bayt al-Hikma</a> ("House of Wisdom") in <a href="Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in present-day <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, and during his rule Baghdad began to flourish as a world center of knowledge, culture and trade.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his rule, the family of <a href="Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a>, which played a deciding role in establishing the Abbasid Caliphate, declined gradually. In 796, he moved his court and government to <a href="Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> in present-day <a href="Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. Domestically, Harun pursued policies similar to those of his father <a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Al-Mahdi</a>. He released many of the <a href="Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyads</a> and 'Alids his brother <a href="Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">Al-Hadi</a> had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of the <a href="Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large scale hostilities broke out with <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>, and under his rule, the Abbasid Empire reached its peak.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A <a href="Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> mission came to offer Harun friendship in 799. Harun sent various presents with the emissaries on their return to <a href="Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s court, including a clock that Charlemagne and his retinue deemed to be a conjuration because of the sounds it emanated and the tricks it displayed every time an hour ticked.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portions of the fictional <i><a href="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i> are set in Harun's court and some of its stories involve Harun himself.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harun's life and court have been the subject of many other tales, both factual and fictitious.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div>

<p>Hārūn was born in <a href="Rey%2C_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey</a>, then part of <a href="Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a> in the Abbasid Caliphate, in present-day <a href="Tehran_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Tehran Province">Tehran Province</a>, <a href="Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. He was the son of <a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a>, the third Abbasid caliph (r. 775–785), and his wife <a href="Al-Khayzuran" title="Al-Khayzuran">al-Khayzuran</a>, who was a woman of strong and independent personality who greatly influenced affairs of state in the reigns of her husband and sons. Growing up Harun studied history, geography, rhetoric, music, poetry, and economics. However, most of his time was dedicated to mastering <a href="Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> and the Quran. In addition, he underwent advanced physical education as a future mujahid, and as a result, he practiced swordplay, archery, and learned the art of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201238_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201238-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His birth date is debated, with various sources giving dates from 763 to 766.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Before becoming a caliph, in 780 and again in 782, Hārūn had already nominally led campaigns against the caliphate's traditional enemy, the <a href="Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, ruled by <a href="Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Empress Irene</a>. The <a href="Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(782)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)">latter expedition</a> was a huge undertaking, and even reached the Asian suburbs of <a href="Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. According to the Muslim chronicler <a href="Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">Al-Tabari</a>, the Byzantines lost tens of thousands of soldiers, and Harun employed 20,000 mules to carry the riches back. Upon his return to the Abbasid realm, the cost of a sword fell to one dirham and the price of a horse to a single gold Byzantine dinar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201225_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201225-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Harun's raids against the Byzantines elevated his political image and once he returned, he was given the <i><a href="Laqab" class="mw-redirect" title="Laqab">laqab</a></i> "al-Rashid", meaning "the Rightly-Guided One". He was promoted to crown prince and given the responsibility of governing the empire's western territories, from <a href="Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> to <a href="Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201224_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201224-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Upon the death of his father in 785, Harun's brother <a href="Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> became caliph. However, al-Hadi's reign was brief: a year and two months. Al-Hadi clashed with their mother over her great influence in court. The historian <a href="Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> notes varying accounts of al-Hadi's death, e.g. an abdominal ulcer or assassination prompted by his own mother.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Caliphate">Caliphate</h2></div>

<p>On the night of al-Hadi's death, <a href="Al-Khayzuran" title="Al-Khayzuran">al-Khayzuran</a> quickly released <a href="Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a> from prison and ordered him to pay the army's wages, send the letters to the governors to pledge allegiance to al-Rashīd, and prepare him as caliph. They summoned the commanders of the army, <a href="Harthama_ibn_A'yan" title="Harthama ibn A'yan">Harthama ibn A'yan</a> and <a href="Khuzayma_ibn_Khazim" title="Khuzayma ibn Khazim">Khuzayma ibn Khazim</a>, and asked them to swear allegiance to Harun as caliph. Khuzayma reportedly gathered and armed 5,000 of his own followers, dragged the Ja'far ibn al-Hādī from his bed and forced him to publicly renounce his claims in favour of Hārūn. Hārūn became caliph in 786 when he was in his early twenties. At the time, he was tall, good looking, and slim but strongly built, with wavy hair and olive skin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201237_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201237-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the day of accession, his son <a href="Al-Ma'mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> was born, and <a href="Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> some little time later: the latter was the son of <a href="Zubaidah_bint_Ja%60far" class="mw-redirect" title="Zubaidah bint Ja`far">Zubaida</a>, a granddaughter of <a href="Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (founder of the city of Baghdad); so he took precedence over the former, whose mother was a Persian. Upon his accession, Harun led <a href="Friday_prayer" title="Friday prayer">Friday prayers</a> in Baghdad's <a href="Great_Mosque_of_al-Mansur" title="Great Mosque of al-Mansur">Great Mosque</a> and then sat publicly as officials and the layman alike lined up to swear allegiance and declare their happiness at his ascent to <a href="Amir_al-Mu'minin" title="Amir al-Mu'minin">Amir al-Mu'minin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201236_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201236-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He began his reign by appointing very able ministers, who carried on the work of the government so well that they greatly improved the condition of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Under Hārūn al-Rashīd's rule, Baghdad flourished into the most splendid city of its period. Tribute paid by many rulers to the caliph funded <a href="Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">architecture</a>, the <a href="Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a> and court luxuries.

</p><p>In 796, Hārūn moved the entire court to <a href="Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> on the middle <a href="Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, where he spent 12 years, most of his reign. He appointed the <a href="Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> jurist <a href="Muhammad_al-Shaybani" title="Muhammad al-Shaybani">Muhammad al-Shaybani</a> as <a href="Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> (judge), but dismissed him in 803. He visited Baghdad only once. Several reasons may have influenced the decision to move to Raqqa: its closeness to the Byzantine border, its excellent communication lines via the Euphrates to Baghdad and via the Balikh river to the north and via <a href="Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> to Damascus, rich agricultural land, and the strategic advantage over any rebellion which might arise in Syria and the middle Euphrates area. <a href="Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani</a>, in his anthology of poems, depicts the splendid life in his court. In Raqqa the Barmakids managed the fate of the empire, and both heirs, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, grew up there. At some point the royal court relocated again to <a href="Ray%2C_Iran" title="Ray, Iran">Al-Rayy</a>, the capital city of <a href="Greater_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, where the famous philologist and leader of the <a href="Grammarians_of_Kufa" title="Grammarians of Kufa">Kufan school</a>, <a href="Al-Kisa'i" title="Al-Kisa'i">Al-Kisa'i</a>, accompanied the caliph with his entourage. When al-Kisa'i became ill while in Al-Rayy, it is said that Harun visited him daily. It seems al-Shaybani and al-Kisa'i both died there on the same day in 804.

</p><p>For the administration of the whole empire, he fell back on his mentor and longtime associate Yahya bin Khalid bin Barmak. Rashid appointed him as his <a href="Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">vizier</a> with full executive powers, and, for seventeen years, Yahya and his sons served Rashid faithfully in whatever assignment he entrusted to them.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Harun made pilgrimages to Mecca by <a href="Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> (2,820 km or 1,750 mi from Baghdad) several times, e.g., 793, 795, 797, 802 and last in 803. Tabari concludes his account of Harun's reign with these words: "It has been said that when Harun ar-Rashid died, there were nine hundred million odd (dirhams) in the state treasury."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201242_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201242-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to Shia belief, Harun imprisoned and poisoned Musa ibn Ja'far, the 7th Imam, in Baghdad.

</p><p>Under al-Rashid, each city had its own law enforcement, which besides keeping order was supposed to examine the public markets in order to ensure, for instance, that proper scales and measures were used; enforce the payment of debts; and clamp down on illegal activities such as gambling, usury, and sales of alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201246_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201246-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Harun was a great patron of art and learning, and is best known for the unsurpassed splendor of his court and lifestyle. Some of the stories, perhaps the earliest, of "The Thousand and One Nights" were inspired by the glittering Baghdad court. The character King Shahryar (whose wife, Scheherazade, tells the tales) may have been based on Harun himself.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advisors">Advisors</h3></div>

<p>Hārūn was influenced by the will of his powerful mother in the governance of the empire until her death in 789; When he became caliph, Harun allowed her (Khayzuran) a free hand and, at times, restrained his own desires out of deference to her expressed wishes, and Khayzuran acted as an overseer of affairs, and Yahya deferred to her and acted on her advice. His <a href="Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> (chief minister) <a href="Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a>, Yahya's sons (especially <a href="Ja'far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a>), and other <a href="Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a> generally controlled the administration. The position of <a href="Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> in the Abbasid caliphal court reached its peak during al-Rashid's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Barmakids were an <a href="Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> family (from <a href="Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>) that dated back to the <a href="Khalid_ibn_Barmak" title="Khalid ibn Barmak">Barmak</a>, a hereditary <a href="Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> priest of <a href="Nava_Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Nava Vihara">Nava Vihara</a>, who converted after the Islamic conquest of Balkh and became very powerful under al-Mahdi. Yahya had helped Hārūn to obtain the caliphate, and he and his sons were in high favor until 798, when the caliph threw them in prison and confiscated their land. <a href="Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">Al-Tabari</a> dates this event to 803 and lists various reasons for it: Yahya's entering the Caliph's presence without permission; Yahya's opposition to Muhammad ibn al Layth, who later gained Harun's favour; and Ja'far's release of Yahya ibn Abdallah ibn Hasan, whom Harun had imprisoned.

</p><p>The fall of the Barmakids is far more likely due to their behaving in a manner that Harun found disrespectful (such as entering his court unannounced) and making decisions in matters of state without first consulting him. <a href="Al-Fadl_ibn_al-Rabi" title="Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi">Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi</a> succeeded Yahya the Barmakid as Harun's chief minister.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</h3></div>

<p>Both <a href="Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a> and <a href="Notker_the_Stammerer" title="Notker the Stammerer">Notker the Stammerer</a> refer to envoys traveling between the courts of Harun and <a href="Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, king of the <a href="Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, and entering friendly discussions about Christian access to holy sites and gift exchanges. Notker mentions Charlemagne sent Harun Spanish horses, colorful <a href="Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian</a> cloaks and impressive hunting dogs. In 802 Harun sent Charlemagne a present consisting of <a href="Silk" title="Silk">silks</a>, <a href="Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> <a href="Candelabra" title="Candelabra">candelabra</a>, <a href="Perfume" title="Perfume">perfume</a>, <a href="Balsam_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Balsam of Mecca">balsam</a>, <a href="Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> chessmen, a colossal tent with many-colored curtains, an <a href="Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a> named <a href="Abul-Abbas" title="Abul-Abbas">Abul-Abbas</a>, and a <a href="Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a> that marked the hours by dropping bronze balls into a bowl, as mechanical <a href="Knight" title="Knight">knights</a> – one for each hour – emerged from little doors which shut behind them. The presents were unprecedented in Western Europe and may have influenced <a href="Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> art.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This exchange of embassies was due to the fact that Harun was interested, like Charlemagne, in subduing the <a href="Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad</a> <a href="Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">emirs of Córdoba</a>. Also, the common enmity against the Byzantines was what brought Harun closer to the contemporary Charlemagne.

</p><p>When the Byzantine empress <a href="Irene_(empress)" class="mw-redirect" title="Irene (empress)">Irene</a> was deposed in 802, <a href="Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> became emperor and refused to pay tribute to Harun, saying that Irene should have been receiving the tribute the whole time. News of this angered Harun, who wrote a message on the back of the Byzantine emperor's letter and said, "In the name of God the most merciful, From <a href="Amir_al-Mu'minin" title="Amir al-Mu'minin">Amir al-Mu'minin</a> Harun ar-Rashid, commander of the faithful, to Nikephoros, dog of the Romans. Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt behold my reply". After <a href="Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">campaigns in Asia Minor</a>, Nikephoros was forced to conclude a treaty, with humiliating terms.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Dr Ahmad Mukhtar al-Abadi, it is due to the particularly fierce second retribution campaign against Nikephoros, that the Byzantine practically ceased any attempt to incite any conflict against the Abbasid again until the rule of <a href="Al-Ma'mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad_Mukhtar_al_Abadi_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_Mukhtar_al_Abadi-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tabari,_bosworth_version,_SUNY_press_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tabari,_bosworth_version,_SUNY_press-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>An alliance was established with the Chinese <a href="Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> by Ar-Rashid after he sent embassies to China.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was called "A-lun" in the Chinese <a href="Old_Book_of_Tang" title="Old Book of Tang">Tang Annals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alliance was aimed against the <a href="Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When diplomats and messengers visited Harun in his palace, he was screened behind a curtain. No visitor or petitioner could speak first, interrupt, or oppose the caliph. They were expected to give their undivided attention to the caliph and calculate their responses with great care.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201240_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201240-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellions">Rebellions</h3></div>

<p>Because of the <i>Thousand and One Nights</i> tales, Harun al-Rashid turned into a legendary figure obscuring his true historic personality. In fact, his reign initiated the political disintegration of the Abbasid caliphate. <a href="Al-Sham" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sham">Syria</a> was inhabited by tribes with Umayyad sympathies and remained the bitter enemy of the Abbasids, while Egypt witnessed uprisings against Abbasids due to maladministration and arbitrary taxation. The Umayyads had been established in Spain in 755, the <a href="Idrisids" class="mw-redirect" title="Idrisids">Idrisids</a> in Morocco in 788, and the <i>Aghlabids</i> in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) in 800. Besides, unrest flared up in Yemen, and the Kharijites rose in rebellion in Daylam, Kerman, Fars and Sistan. Revolts also broke out in <a href="Greater_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, and al-Rashid waged many campaigns against the Byzantines.

</p><p>Al-Rashid appointed <a href="Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_Mahan" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan">Ali bin Isa bin Mahan</a> as the governor of Khorasan, who tried to bring to heel the princes and chieftains of the region, and to reimpose the full authority of the central government on them. This new policy met with fierce resistance and provoked numerous uprisings in the region.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2></div>

<p>Harun's first wife was <a href="Zubaidah_bint_Ja'far" title="Zubaidah bint Ja'far">Zubaidah</a>. She was the daughter of his paternal uncle, Ja'far and maternal aunt Salsal, sister of <a href="Al-Khayzuran" title="Al-Khayzuran">Al-Khayzuran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott194629–30_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott194629–30-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They married in 781–82, at the residence of Muhammad bin Sulayman in Baghdad. She had one son, Caliph <a href="Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Al-Amin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died in 831.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another of his wives was Azizah, daughter of Ghitrif, brother of Al-Khayzuran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She had been formerly married to <a href="Sulayman_ibn_Abi_Ja'far" title="Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far">Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far</a>, who had divorced her.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another was Ghadir also known as Amat-al-Aziz, who had been formerly a concubine of his brother al-Hadi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She had one son Ali.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died in 789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another wife was <a href="Umm_Muhammad_bint_Salih" title="Umm Muhammad bint Salih">Umm Muhammad</a>, the daughter of Salih al-Miskin and Umm Abdullah, the daughter of Isa bin Ali. They married in November–December 803 in Al-Raqqah. She had been formerly been married to <a href="Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a>, who had repudiated her.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another wife married around the same year was <a href="Abbasa_bint_Sulayman" title="Abbasa bint Sulayman">Abbasa</a>, daughter of <a href="Sulayman_ibn_Abi_Ja'far" title="Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far">Sulayman ibn Abi Ja'far</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another wife was Jurashiyyah al-Uthmanniyah. She was the daughter of Abdullah bin Muhammad, and had descended from <a href="Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, the third Caliph of the <a href="Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Harun's earliest known concubine was Hailanah. She had been a slave girl of <a href="Yahya_ibn_Khalid" title="Yahya ibn Khalid">Yahya ibn Khalid</a>, the Barmakid. It was she who begged him, while he was yet a prince, to take her away from the elderly Yahya. Harun then approached Yahya, who presented him with the girl. She died three years later<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 789–90,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201714_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201714-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Harun mourned her deeply.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was <a href="Dananir_al_Barmakiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dananir al Barmakiyya">Dananir</a>. She was a Barmakid, and had been formerly a slave girl of Yahya ibn Khalid. She had been educated at Medina and had studied instrumental and vocal music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138–39_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138–39-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was <a href="Marajil" title="Marajil">Marajil</a>. She was a Persian, and came from distant <a href="Badghis_Province" title="Badghis Province">Badhaghis</a> in Persia. She was one of the ten maids presented to Harun. She gave birth to Abdullah (future caliph <a href="Al-Ma'mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>) on the night of Harun's accession to the throne, in September 786, in whose birth she died. Her son was then adopted by Zubaidah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Qasif, mother of <a href="Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">Al-Qasim</a>. He was Harun's second son, born to a concubine mother. Harun's eldest daughter Sukaynah was also born to her.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another concubine was <a href="Maridah_bint_Shabib" title="Maridah bint Shabib">Maridah</a>. Her father was Shabib.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013462_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013462-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was a Sogdian, and was born in Kufah. She was one of the ten maids presented to Harun by Zubaidah. She had five children. These were Abu Ishaq (future caliph <a href="Al-Mu'tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a>), Abu Isma'il, Umm Habib, and two others whose names are unknown. She was Harun's favourite concubine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141–42_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141–42-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other favourite concubines were, Dhat al-Khal, Sihr, and Diya. Diya died much to Harun's sorrow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946143_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946143-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dhat al-Khal also known as Khubth<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Khunth,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a singer, belonging to a slave-dealer who was himself a freedman of Abbasah, the sister of Al-Rashid. She caught the fancy of Ibrahim al-Mausili, whose songs in praise of her soon reached Harun's attention, who bought her for the enormous sum of 70,000 dinars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was the mother of Harun's son, Abu al-Abbas Muhammad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sihr was mother of Harun's daughters, Khadijah<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Karib.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was <a href="Inan_bint_Abdallah" title="Inan bint Abdallah">Inan</a>. Her father was Abdullah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray20178_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray20178-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was born and brought up in the Yamamah in central Arabia. She was a singer and a poet, and had been a slave girl of Abu Khalid al-Natifi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946146_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946146-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She bore Harun two sons, both of whom died young. She accompanied him to Khurasan where he, and, soon after, she died.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another concubine was Ghadid, also known as Musaffa, and she was mother of Harun's daughters, Hamdunah<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Fatimah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was his favourite concubine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamdunah and Fatimah married Al-Hadi's sons, Isma'il and Ja'far respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946157_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946157-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Shikl. She was the mother of Abu Ali.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was purchased by Al-Rashid along with another girl named Shadhr<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as Sukkar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Shadhr became pregnant and had a child named Umm Abiha,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shikl grew envious of her. This jealousy escalated to the point where it became widely known. Later, Shikl herself became pregnant and gave birth to Abu Ali. Despite the deaths of both mothers, the animosity between Abu Ali and Umm Abiha persisted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another concubine was Hilanah. She had been formerly a concubine of his brother al-Hadi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_449_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_449-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another of Harun's concubines was the captive daughter of a Greek churchman of <a href="Heraclea_(Acarnania)" title="Heraclea (Acarnania)">Heraclea</a> acquired with the fall of that city in 806. Zubaidah once more presented him with one of her personal maids who had caught his fancy. Harun's half-brother, while governor of Egypt from 795 to 797, also sent him an Egyptian maid who immediately won his favour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946149–50_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946149–50-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other concubines were namely: Ri'm, mother of Salih; Irbah, mother of Abu Isa Muhammad; Sahdhrah, mother of Abu Yaqub Muhammad; Rawah, mother of Abu Sulayman Muhammad; Dawaj, mother of Abu Ali Muhammad; Kitman, mother of Abu Ahmad Muhammad; Hulab, mother of Arwa; Irabah, mother of Umm al-Hassan; Rahiq, mother of Umm Salamah; Khzq, mother of Umm al-Qasim; Haly, mother of Umm Ja'far Ramlah; Aniq, mother of Umm Ali; Samandal, mother of Umm al-Ghaliyah; Zinah, mother of Raytah;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327–28_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327–28-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qaina;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013276_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013276-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shajw.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anecdotes">Anecdotes</h2></div>

<p>Many anecdotes attached themselves to the person of Harun al-Rashid in the centuries following his rule. <a href="Saadi_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi (poet)">Saadi</a> of Shiraz inserted a number of them into his <i><a href="Gulistan_of_Sa'di" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulistan of Sa'di">Gulistan</a></i>.

</p><p><a href="Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a> relates a number of interesting anecdotes in <i><a href="The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a></i> that illuminate the caliph's character. For example, he recounts Harun's delight when his horse came in first, closely followed by al-Ma'mun's, at a race that Harun held at Raqqa. Al-Masudi tells the story of Harun setting his poets a challenging task. When others failed to please him, Miskin of Medina succeeded superbly well. The poet then launched into a moving account of how much it had cost him to learn that song. Harun laughed and said that he did not know which was more entertaining, the song or the story. He rewarded the poet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi201394_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi201394-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There is also the tale of Harun asking Ishaq ibn Ibrahim to keep singing. The musician did so until the caliph fell asleep. Then, strangely, a handsome young man appeared, snatched the musician's lute, sang a very moving piece (al-Masudi quotes it) and left. On awakening and being informed of that, Harun said Ishaq ibn Ibrahim had received a supernatural visitation.

</p><p>Shortly before he died, Harun is said to have been reading some lines by <a href="Abu_al-Atahiya" title="Abu al-Atahiya">Abu al-Atahiya</a> about the transitory nature of the power and pleasures of this world, an anecdote related to other caliphs as well.

</p><p><br>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div>

<p>A major revolt led by <a href="Rafi_ibn_al-Layth" title="Rafi ibn al-Layth">Rafi ibn al-Layth</a> was started in <a href="Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarqand</a> which forced Harun al-Rashid to move to <a href="Greater_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. He first removed and arrested Ali bin Isa bin Mahan but the revolt continued unchecked. (Harun had dismissed Ali and replaced him with <a href="Harthama_ibn_A'yan" title="Harthama ibn A'yan">Harthama ibn A'yan</a>, and in 808 marched himself east to deal with the rebel <a href="Rafi_ibn_al-Layth" title="Rafi ibn al-Layth">Rafi ibn al-Layth</a>, but died in March 809 while at <a href="Tus%2C_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1995385–86_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1995385–86-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harun al-Rashid became ill and died very soon after when he reached <a href="Sanabad" title="Sanabad">Sanabad</a> village in <a href="Tus%2C_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a> and was buried in <i>Dar al-Imarah</i>, the summer palace of <a href="Humayd_ibn_Qahtaba" title="Humayd ibn Qahtaba">Humayd ibn Qahtaba</a>, the Abbasid governor of Khorasan. Due to this historical event, the Dar al-Imarah was known as the <a href="Haruniyeh_Dome" title="Haruniyeh Dome">Mausoleum of Haruniyyeh</a>. The location later became known as <a href="Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a> ("The Place of Martyrdom") because of the martyrdom of <a href="Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Imam al-Ridha</a> in 818. Harun al-Rashid and his first <a href="Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">Heir</a>, prince al-Amin (Al-Amin was nominated first heir, Al-Ma'mun second and Al-Qasim was third <a href="Heir_presumptive" title="Heir presumptive">heir</a>.) After Harun's death in 809 he was succeeded by <a href="Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Al-Amin</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div>

<p>Al-Rashid become a prominent figure in the <a href="Muslim_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim culture">Muslim</a> and <a href="Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a>, he has been described as one of the most famous Arabs in history. All the <a href="List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid caliphs after him</a> were his descendants.

</p><p>About his accession famous poet and musician <a href="Ibrahim_al-Mawsili" title="Ibrahim al-Mawsili">al-Mawsili</a> said:

</p>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Did you not see how the sun came out of hiding on Harun's accession and flooded the world with light<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>About his reign, famous Arab historian <a href="Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a> said:

</p>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So great were the Splendour and riches of his reign, such was its prosperity, that this period has been called "the Honeymoon".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Al-Rashid become the progenitor of subsequent Abbasid caliphs. Al-Rashid nominated his son <a href="Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">Muhammad al-Amin</a> as his first heir. Muhammad had an elder half-brother, Abdallah, the future <a href="Al-Ma'mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 813–833</span>), who had been born in September 786 (six months older than him) However, Abdallah's mother was a Persian concubine, and his pure Abbasid lineage gave Muhammad seniority over his half-brother.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, he was the only Abbasid caliph to claim such descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already in 792, Harun had Muhammad receive the oath of allegiance (<i><a href="Bay'ah" title="Bay'ah">bay'ah</a></i>) with the name of <i><a href="Al-Am%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Amīn">al-Amīn</a></i> ("The Trustworthy"), effectively marking him out as his main heir, while Abdallah was not named second heir, under the name <i>al-Maʾmūn</i> ("The Trusted One") until 799.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his third son <a href="Al-Qasim_ibn_Harun_al-Rashid" title="Al-Qasim ibn Harun al-Rashid">Qasim</a> was nominated <a href="Heir_presumptive" title="Heir presumptive">third heir</a>, however he never became caliph.

Harun is sometimes accused of weakening the Abbasid legacy by dividing the kingdoms central powers between his two sons. This ultimately created tension between the two brothers.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his sons, al-Amin became caliph after his death in 809. Al-Amin ruled from 809 to 813, until a <a href="Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">civil war</a> broke between him and his brother Abdallah al-Ma'mun (Governor of Khorasan). The reason of war were that caliph al-Amin tried to remove al-Ma'mun as his heir. Al-Ma'mun became caliph in 813 and ruled the caliphate for two decades until 833. He was succeeded by another of Harun's son Abu Ishaq Muhammad (better known as <a href="Al-Mu'tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">Al-Mu'tasim</a>), his mother was <a href="Maridah_bint_Shabib" title="Maridah bint Shabib">Marida</a>, a concubine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993776_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993776-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013222_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013222-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div>

<div class="gallerytext">Harun al-Rashid as depicted in the <i><a href="Arabian_Nights" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian Nights">Arabian Nights</a></i> (One Thousand and One Nights).</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Sketch drawing of Harun al-Rashid by poet and visual artist <a href="Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a> (1883–1931)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Harun al-Rashid from the book Kitab khizanat al-ayyam fī tarajim al-ʻizam, first published in New york in 1899.</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A sketch representation of Hārūn al-Rashid from a book entitled Sayr Mulhimah: <i>Min al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb</i>, first translated into Arabic and published in Egypt, 1381 <a href="Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">AH</a>/1961</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Harun al-Rashid as depicted in the book <i>Harun Al-Rashid</i> (1951)</div>

</li>

</ul>

<ul><li>In <a href="Shinobu_Ohtaka" title="Shinobu Ohtaka">Shinobu Ohtaka</a>'s <i><a href="Magi%3A_The_Labyrinth_of_Magic" title="Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic">Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic</a></i>, the former king of Balbadd is called Rashid Saluja. In the spin-off <i>Adventure of Sinbad</i>, Rashid's alias is Harun.</li>

<li><a href="Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</a> wrote a short poem titled "Haroun Al Raschid".</li>

<li><a href="O._Henry" title="O. Henry">O. Henry</a> uses the character in his story "The Caliph and the Cad". The theme of the story is "turning the tables on Haroun al Raschid".</li>

<li><a href="Alfred%2C_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred Tennyson</a> wrote a poem in his youth entitled "<a href="Recollections_of_the_Arabian_Nights" title="Recollections of the Arabian Nights">Recollections of the Arabian Nights</a>". Every stanza (except the last one) ends with "of good Haroun Alraschid".</li>

<li>Harun al-Rashid was a main figure and character in several of the stories in some of the oldest versions of the <i><a href="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i>.</li>

<li>The Indian television series <i><a href="Alif_Laila" title="Alif Laila">Alif Laila</a></i> (1993–1997), an adaptation of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, features several tales involving the caliph from the classic collection of stories.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Hārūn ar-Rashīd figures throughout <a href="James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s <i><a href="Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a></i>, in a dream of <a href="Stephen_Dedalus" title="Stephen Dedalus">Stephen Dedalus</a>, one of the protagonists. Stephen's efforts to recall this dream continue throughout the novel, culminating in the novel's fifteenth episode, wherein some characters also take on the guise of Hārūn.</li>

<li>Harun al-Rashid is celebrated in a 1923 poem by <a href="W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>, "The Gift of Harun al-Rashid".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>A story of one of Harun's wanderings provides the climax to the narrative game of titles at the end of <a href="Italo_Calvino" title="Italo Calvino">Italo Calvino</a>'s <i><a href="If_on_a_winter's_night_a_traveler" title="If on a winter's night a traveler">If on a winter's night a traveler</a></i> (1979). In Calvino's story, Harun wanders at night, only to be drawn into a conspiracy in which he is selected to assassinate the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.</li>

<li>In <a href="Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens'</a> 1842 <a href="Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travelogue</a>, <i><a href="American_Notes" title="American Notes">American Notes for General Circulation</a></i>, he compares American supporters of slavery to the "Caliph Harun al-Rashid in his angry robe of scarlet".</li>

<li>The two protagonists of <a href="Salman_Rushdie" title="Salman Rushdie">Salman Rushdie</a>'s 1990 novel <i><a href="Haroun_and_the_Sea_of_Stories" title="Haroun and the Sea of Stories">Haroun and the Sea of Stories</a></i> are Haroun and his father Rashid Khalifa.</li>

<li>In the <a href="The_Sten_Chronicles" title="The Sten Chronicles">Sten</a> science fiction novels by <a href="Allan_Cole" title="Allan Cole">Allan Cole</a> and <a href="Chris_Bunch" title="Chris Bunch">Chris Bunch</a>, the character of the Eternal Emperor uses the name "H. E. Raschid" when incognito; this is confirmed, in the final book of the series, as a reference to the character from <a href="Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Burton</a>'s translation of <i>The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night</i>.</li>

<li>The movie <i><a href="The_Golden_Blade" title="The Golden Blade">The Golden Blade</a></i> (1952), starring <a href="Rock_Hudson" title="Rock Hudson">Rock Hudson</a> and <a href="Piper_Laurie" title="Piper Laurie">Piper Laurie</a> depicts the adventures of <i>Harun</i> who uses a <a href="Magic_sword" title="Magic sword">magic sword</a> to free a <a href="Fairy-tale" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairy-tale">fairy-tale</a> Baghdad from Jafar, the evil usurper of the throne. After he finally wins the hand of princess Khairuzan she awards him the title Al-Rashid ("the righteous").</li>

<li>The <a href="Comic_book" title="Comic book">comic book</a> <i><a href="The_Sandman_(DC_Comics_Modern_Age)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)">The Sandman</a></i> features a story (issue 50, "Ramadan") set in the world of the <i>One Thousand and One Nights</i>, with Hārūn ar-Rashīd as the protagonist. It highlights his historical and mythical role as well as his discussion of the transitory nature of power. The story is included in the collection <i><a href="The_Sandman%3A_Fables_and_Reflections" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sandman: Fables and Reflections">The Sandman: Fables and Reflections</a></i>.</li>

<li><a href="Haroun_El_Poussah" title="Haroun El Poussah">Haroun El Poussah</a> in the French <a href="Comics" title="Comics">comic</a> strip <i><a href="Iznogoud" title="Iznogoud">Iznogoud</a></i> is a satirical version of Hārūn ar-Rashīd.</li>

<li>In <i><a href="Quest_for_Glory_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Quest for Glory II">Quest for Glory II</a></i>, the sultan who adopts <a href="Hero_(Quest_for_Glory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hero (Quest for Glory)">the Hero</a> as his son is named Hārūn ar-Rashīd. He is often seen prophesying on the streets of Shapeir as The Poet Omar.</li>

<li>Harun al-Rashid appears as the leader of Arabia in the video game <i><a href="Civilization_V" title="Civilization V">Civilization V</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Future US President <a href="Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, when he was a commissioner for the <a href="New_York_Police_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Police Department">New York Police Department</a>, was nicknamed "Haroun-al-Roosevelt" in several local newspapers.</li>

<li>In <i><a href="The_Master_and_Margarita" title="The Master and Margarita">The Master and Margarita</a></i>, by novelist <a href="Mikhail_Bulgakov" title="Mikhail Bulgakov">Mikhail Bulgakov</a>, Harun al-Rashid is referenced by the character Korovyev in which he warns a door man not to judge him "by [his] suit", and to reference the story of "the famous caliph, Harun al-Rashid".</li>

<li>In the 1924 film <i><a href="Waxworks_(film)" title="Waxworks (film)">Waxworks</a></i>, a poet is hired by a wax museum proprietor to write back-stories for three wax models. Among these wax models is Harun al-Rashid, played by <a href="Emil_Jannings" title="Emil Jannings">Emil Jannings</a>.</li>

<li>In the 2006 novel <i><a href="Variable_Star" title="Variable Star">Variable Star</a></i> by <a href="Robert_Heinlein" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Heinlein">Robert Heinlein</a> and <a href="Spider_Robinson" title="Spider Robinson">Spider Robinson</a>, chapter 1 is prefaced with a quotation from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's "Recollections of the Arabian Nights" regarding "good Harun Alrashid", the relevance of which becomes apparent in chapter 2 when one character relates stories (probably apocryphal and presumably drawn from Tennyson) of Harun al-Rahsid to another character in order to use them as an analogy.</li>

<li>The second chapter in the novel <i><a href="Prince_Otto" title="Prince Otto">Prince Otto</a></i> by <a href="Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> has the title "In which the Prince Plays Haroun al-Raschid".</li>

<li>Haroun al-Rashid has a character page in the video game <i><a href="Crusader_Kings_II" title="Crusader Kings II">Crusader Kings II</a></i>, and it is possible to play as his descendants of the <a href="Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a>.</li>

<li>Harun al-Rashid appears in the children's comic book <i><a href="Mampato" title="Mampato">Mampato</a></i>, in the stories "Bromiznar de Bagdad" and "Ábrete Sesamo", by the Chilean author <a href="Themo_Lobos" title="Themo Lobos">Themo Lobos</a>. In this story, al-Rashid is shown at first as lazy and indolent, but after a series of adventures he decides to take the leading role against an evil vizier and help the main character, Mampato.</li>

<li><a href="Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> designed a monument to al-Rashid as part of his proposed 1957 urban renewal plan for <a href="Baghdad%2C_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad, Iraq">Baghdad, Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>In his book <i><a href="The_Power_Broker" title="The Power Broker">The Power Broker</a></i>, <a href="Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert Caro</a> compares <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> <a href="Mayor_of_New_York_City" title="Mayor of New York City">mayor</a> <a href="Fiorello_H._La_Guardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiorello H. La Guardia">Fiorello H. La Guardia</a> to Harun al-Rashid in the way each "roam[ed] his domain."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The Syrian television series <i>Harun Al-Rashid</i> (2018), starring <a href="Kosai_Khauli" title="Kosai Khauli">Kosai Khauli</a>, <a href="Caresse_Bashar" title="Caresse Bashar">Karis Bashar</a>, and <a href="Yasser_Al-Masri" title="Yasser Al-Masri">Yasser Al-Masri</a> focuses on Harun and his relation with his brother Caliph Al-Hadi, and that preceded Harun's ascent to the Caliphate. It also focuses on his relations with his elder sons and nomination of Al-Amin and Al-Ma'mun as heir.</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Isma'il_ibn_Salih_ibn_Ali_al-Hashimi" title="Isma'il ibn Salih ibn Ali al-Hashimi">Isma'il ibn Salih ibn Ali al-Hashimi</a></li>

<li><a href="Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Salih" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Salih">Abd al-Malik ibn Salih</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Qadi" title="Great Qadi">Great Qadi</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Audun Holme, <i>Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage</i> p. 150.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004" class="citation book cs1">Ghareeb, Edmund A.; Dougherty, Beth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIB5qT9sGnwC&dq=harun+al-rashid+released+umayyads&pg=PA191"><i>Historical Dictionary of Iraq</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780810865686</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004" class="citation book cs1">Ghareeb, Edmund A.; Dougherty, Beth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIB5qT9sGnwC&dq=harun+al-rashid+released+umayyads&pg=PA191"><i>Historical Dictionary of Iraq</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780810865686</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">André Clot, <i>Harun al-Rashid and the world of the thousand and one nights</i>, p. 97.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Royal Frankish Annals, DCCCVII.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charlemagne: Translated sources, p. 98.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">André Clot, <i>Harun al-Rashid and the world of the thousand and one nights</i>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201238-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201238_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 38.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Watt, William Montgomery (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harun-al-Rashid"><i>Hārūn al-Rashīd</i></a>. Encyclopedia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201225-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201225_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 25.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201224-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201224_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 24.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201237-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201237_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 37.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201236-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201236_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 36.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">New Arabian nights' entertainments, Volume 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Masʻūdī, Paul Lunde, Caroline Stone, <i>The meadows of gold: the Abbasids</i> p. 62.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201242-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201242_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 42.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201246-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201246_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 46.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/harun-al-rashid-1788986">"Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid Caliph Who Inspired the 'Arabian Nights'"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHovannisianSabagh1998" class="citation book cs1">Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges (1998). <i>The Persian Presence in the Islamic World</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780521591850</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lodovico Antonio Muratori, Giuseppe Catalani (1742), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNVCAQAAMAAJ"><i>Annali d'Italia: Dall'anno 601 dell'era volare fino all'anno 840</i></a>, Monaco, p. 465. Muratori describes only some of these gifts.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tarikh ath-Thabari 4/668–669.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya v 13 p. 650.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ahmad_Mukhtar_al_Abadi-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad_Mukhtar_al_Abadi_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMukhtar_al-Abadi2019" class="citation book cs1">Mukhtar al-Abadi, Ahmad (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebook.univeyes.com/28050/pdf-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%b3%d9%8a-%d9%88%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%86%d8%af%d9%84%d8%b3%d9%8a-%d9%84%d8%a3%d8%ad%d9%85%d8%af-%d9%85%d8%ae%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%af%d9%8a"><i>In Abbasid and Andalusian History</i></a>. Ain University Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tabari,_bosworth_version,_SUNY_press-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tabari,_bosworth_version,_SUNY_press_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFC.E1989" class="citation book cs1">C.E, Bosworth (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wqf1gwM9O58C"><i>The History of al-Tabari Vol. 30: The 'Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium: The Caliphates of Musa al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid A.D. 785–809/A.H. 169–193</i></a>. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 365. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88706-564-4</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDennis_Bloodworth,_Ching_Ping_Bloodworth2004" class="citation book cs1">Dennis Bloodworth, Ching Ping Bloodworth (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QivwtVwq8ykC"><i>The Chinese Machiavelli: 3000 years of Chinese statecraft</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 214. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7658-0568-5</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_Allen_Giles1926" class="citation book cs1">Herbert Allen Giles (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=drPQaUGOJQIC&q=harun+raschid+less+obtrusive&pg=PA138"><i>Confucianism and its rivals</i></a>. Forgotten Books. p. 139. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-60680-248-8</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall_Broomhall1910" class="citation book cs1">Marshall Broomhall (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ObcNAAAAIAAJ"><i>Islam in China: a neglected problem</i></a>. London: Morgan & Scott, ltd. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ObcNAAAAIAAJ/page/n46">25</a>, 26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4mCH1oCKTkC&dq=Luciano+Petech+Harun+Tibetans&pg=PA15">Bajpai 2002</a>, p. 15.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn5oVOER2ogC">Bajpai 1981</a>, p. 55.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChaliand1970" class="citation book cs1">Chaliand, Gérard (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aBcdAAAAMAAJ"><i>Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube</i></a>. Transaction Publishers<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2018</span> – via Google Books.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luciano Petech, <i>A Study of the Chronicles of Ladakh</i> (Calcutta, 1939), pp. 73–73.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luciano Petech, <i>A Study of the Chronicles of Ladakh</i> (Calcutta, 1939), pp. 55–85.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201240-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201240_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 40.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott194629–30-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott194629–30_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, pp. 29–30.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 141.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989326_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989">al-Tabari & Bosworth 1989</a>, p. 326.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946137_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 137.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 138.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201714-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201714_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-SāʿīToorawaBray2017">al-Sāʿī, Toorawa & Bray 2017</a>, p. 14.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138–39-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946138–39_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, pp. 138–39.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989">al-Tabari & Bosworth 1989</a>, p. 327.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013462-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013462_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasudi2013">Masudi 2013</a>, p. 462.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141–42-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946141–42_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, pp. 141–42.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946143-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946143_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 143.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989">al-Tabari & Bosworth 1989</a>, p. 327.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_462_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilpatrick2023">Kilpatrick 2023</a>, pp. 309, 462.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946144_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 144.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989328_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989">al-Tabari & Bosworth 1989</a>, p. 328.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray20178-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray20178_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-SāʿīToorawaBray2017">al-Sāʿī, Toorawa & Bray 2017</a>, p. 8.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946146-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946146_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, p. 146.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCaswell2011" class="citation book cs1">Caswell, Fuad Matthew (2011). <i>The Slave Girls of Baghdad: The Qiyan in the Early Abbasid Era</i>. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">73–</span>81. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78672-959-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-SāʿīToorawaBray201713_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-SāʿīToorawaBray2017">al-Sāʿī, Toorawa & Bray 2017</a>, p. 13.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946157-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946157_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, pp. 157.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341,_462_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilpatrick2023">Kilpatrick 2023</a>, pp. 41, 462.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick202341_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilpatrick2023">Kilpatrick 2023</a>, p. 41.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_449-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKilpatrick2023309,_449_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKilpatrick2023">Kilpatrick 2023</a>, pp. 309, 449.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946149–50-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbott1946149–50_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbbott1946">Abbott 1946</a>, pp. 149–50.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327–28-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-TabariBosworth1989327–28_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989">al-Tabari & Bosworth 1989</a>, pp. 327–28.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013276-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013276_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasudi2013">Masudi 2013</a>, p. 276.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi201394-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi201394_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasudi2013">Masudi 2013</a>, p. 94.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1995385–86-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1995385–86_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1995">Bosworth 1995</a>, pp. 385–86.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harun-al-Rashid">"Hārūn al-Rashīd | ʿAbbāsid caliph | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EkghBQAAQBAJ&q=harun+al+rashid">"Harun al-Rashid: and the World of the Thousand and One Nights"</a>. <i>Youth and Splendour of the Well-Guided One, part 2</i>. André Clot. 2014. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780863565588</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EkghBQAAQBAJ&q=harun+al+rashid">"Harun al-Rashid: and the World of the Thousand and One Nights"</a>. <i>The Horsemen of Allah, part 1</i>. André Clot. 2014. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780863565588</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabrieli1960437_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGabrieli1960">Gabrieli 1960</a>, p. 437.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERekaya1991331_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRekaya1991">Rekaya 1991</a>, p. 331.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Tabari, The History of Prophets and Kings, tr. Michael Fishbein, The History of al-Ṭabarī Volume XXXI: The War between Brothers (Albany, 1992)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993776-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBosworth1993776_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1993">Bosworth 1993</a>, p. 776.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013222-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasudi2013222_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMasudi2013">Masudi 2013</a>, p. 222.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.induna.com/1000006012-productdetails/">"Alif Laila DVD [20 Disc Set]"</a>. <i>Induna.com</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csun.edu/~hceng029/yeats/poemsalpha.html">"Yeats Poems Titles"</a>. <i>Csun.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161008075736/http://www.csun.edu/~hceng029/yeats/yeatspoems/GiftOfHarun">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csun.edu/~hceng029/yeats/yeatspoems/GiftOfHarun">the original</a> on 8 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZacny2010" class="citation web cs1">Zacny, Rob (24 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110106162336/http://www.gamepro.com/article/features/217737/civilization-v-field-report-2">"Civilization V Field Report 2"</a>. GamePro. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gamepro.com/article/features/217737/civilization-v-field-report-2">the original</a> on 6 January 2011.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2015" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Neil (2015). <i>The Urbanism of Frank Lloyd Wright</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0691167534</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCaro1974" class="citation book cs1">Caro, Robert (1974). <i>The Power Broker</i>. New York: Vintage Books. p. 444.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div>

<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">First <a href="Wali_al-Ahd" title="Wali al-Ahd">heir-apparent</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Second <a href="Wali_al-Ahd" title="Wali al-Ahd">heir-apparent</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Qasim was the <a href="Heir_Presumptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Heir Presumptive">third heir</a>, however, he was removed by his elder brothers</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Ma'mun had made no official provisions for his succession during his reign. According to the account of <a href="Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, on his deathbed al-Ma'mun dictated a letter nominating his brother <i>Abu Ishaq Muhammad</i> as his successor, He was acclaimed as caliph on 9 August, with the regnal title of al-Mu'tasim bi'llah</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

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</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAbbott1946" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Nabia (1946). <i>Two Queens of Baghdad: Mother and Wife of Hārūn Al Rashīd</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86356-031-6</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFal-SāʿīToorawaBray2017" class="citation book cs1">al-Sāʿī, Ibn; Toorawa, Shawkat M.; Bray, Julia (2017). <i>كتاب جهات الأئمة الخلفاء من الحرائر والإماء المسمى نساء الخلفاء: Women and the Court of Baghdad</i>. Library of Arabic Literature. NYU Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4798-6679-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFal-TabariBosworth1989" class="citation book cs1">al-Tabari, Muhammad Ibn Yarir (1989). <i>The History of al-Tabari Vol. 30: The 'Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium: The Caliphates of Musa al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid A.D. 785–809/A.H. 169–193</i>. Bibliotheca Persica. Translated by C.E. Bosworth. State University of New York Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88706-564-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBobrick2012" class="citation book cs1">Bobrick, Benson (2012). <i>The Caliph's Splendor: Islam and the West in the Golden Age of Baghdad</i>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1416567622</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1995" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6184">"Rāfiʿ b. al- Layt̲h̲ b. Naṣr b. Sayyār"</a>. In <a href="C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> & <a href="G%C3%A9rard_Lecomte" title="Gérard Lecomte">Lecomte, G.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>.</i> Volume VIII:<i> Ned–Sam</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">385–</span>86. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_6184">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6184</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-09834-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="C.E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C.E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-mutasim-bi-llah-SIM_5656">"al-Muʿtaṣim Bi'llāh"</a></span>. In <a href="C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a> & <a href="Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume VII:<i> Mif–Naz</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 776. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-09419-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGabrieli1960" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gabrieli, F. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599">"al-Amīn"</a>. In <a href="H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">Gibb, H. A. R.</a>; <a href="Johannes_Hendrik_Kramers" title="Johannes Hendrik Kramers">Kramers, J. H.</a>; <a href="%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Évariste Lévi-Provençal">Lévi-Provençal, E.</a>; <a href="Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a>; <a href="Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume I:<i> A–B</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">437–</span>38. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0599</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469456">495469456</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMasudi2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Masudi</a> (2013) [1989]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_5MrBgAAQBAJ"><i>The Meadows of Gold: The Abbasids</i></a>. Translated by Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7103-0246-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRekaya1991" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rekaya, M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889">"al-Maʾmūn"</a>. In <a href="C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a> & <a href="Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume VI:<i> Mahk–Mid</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">331–</span>39. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4889</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-08112-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKilpatrick2023" class="citation book cs1">Shābushtī, Ali ibn Muhammad (2023). Kilpatrick, Hilary (ed.). <i>The Book of Monasteries</i>. New York University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781479825769</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Masudi</a>, <a href="The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a>, The Abbasids, transl. Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone, Kegan paul, London and New York, 1989</li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> "The History of al-Tabari" volume XXX "The 'Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium" transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1989.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFClot1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Andr%C3%A9_Clot" title="André Clot">Clot, André</a> (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harunalrashidw00clot"><i>Harun Al-Rashid and the Age of a Thousand and One Nights</i></a></span>. New Amsterdam Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-941533-65-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="St_John_Philby" title="St John Philby">St John Philby</a>. Harun al Rashid (London: P. Davies) 1933.</li>

<li>Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, "Two Lives of Charlemagne," transl. Lewis Thorpe, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1977 (1969)</li>

<li><a href="John_H._Haaren" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Haaren">John H. Haaren</a>, <i>Famous Men of the Middle Ages</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.authorama.com/famous-men-of-the-middle-ages-13.html">[1]</a></li>

<li>William Muir, K.C.S.I., <i>The Caliphate, its rise, decline, and fall</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/caliphateitsris00muirgoog">[2]</a></li>

<li>Theophanes, "The Chronicle of Theophanes," transl. Harry Turtledove, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1982</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1991" class="citation book cs1">Norwich, John J. (1991). <i>Byzantium: The Apogee</i>. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-394-53779-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZabeth1999" class="citation book cs1">Zabeth, Hyder Reza (1999). <i>Landmarks of Mashhad</i>. Alhoda UK. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>964-444-221-0</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Harun_al-Rashid" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Author:Harun_al-Rashid" class="extiw external" title="s:en:Author:Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></b></div></div></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBrentjes2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Sonja_Brentjes" title="Sonja Brentjes">Brentjes, Sonja</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Harun_al-Rashid_BEA.htm">"Hārūn al-Rashīd"</a>. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). <i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>. New York: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">474–</span>75. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-31022-0</bdi>.</cite> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Harun_al-Rashid_BEA.pdf">PDF version</a>)</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Abbasid_Caliphs211" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a><br>(749–1258)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu'tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li>

<li><a href="Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustansir_I" title="Al-Mustansir I">al-Mustansir I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a></li>

<li><i>(<a href="Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Mongol conquest</a>)</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a><br>(1261–1517)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">al-Mustansir II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Hakim_I" title="Al-Hakim I">al-Hakim I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustakfi_I_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustakfi I (Cairo)">al-Mustakfi I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wathiq_I" title="Al-Wathiq I">al-Wathiq I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Hakim_II" title="Al-Hakim II">al-Hakim II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tadid_I" title="Al-Mu'tadid I">al-Mu'tadid I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wathiq_II" title="Al-Wathiq II">al-Wathiq II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'in_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">al-Musta'in</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tadid_II" title="Al-Mu'tadid II">al-Mu'tadid II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustakfi_II" title="Al-Mustakfi II">al-Mustakfi II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustanjid_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustanjid (Cairo)">al-Mustanjid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_II" title="Al-Mutawakkil II">al-Mutawakkil II</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li>

<li><i>(<a href="Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%9317)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)">Ottoman conquest</a>)</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>[B]</sup> indicates ephemeral caliphs recognized in the city of Baghdad only</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)87" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abbasid_Caliphate_topics_(750–1258)87" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> topics <span style="font-size: 85%;">(750–1258)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History87" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Background</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>

<ul><li><a href="Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hashimiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashimiyya">Hashimiyya</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Early period</b><br><span style="font-size: 85%;">(750–833)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Establishment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abbasid_revolution" title="Abbasid revolution">Abbasid revolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abbasid_conquest_of_Ifriqiya" title="Abbasid conquest of Ifriqiya">Conquest of Ifriqiya</a></li>

<li><a href="Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul</a></li>

<li><a href="Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Round city of Baghdad</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid%E2%80%93Carolingian_alliance" title="Abbasid–Carolingian alliance">Abbasid–Carolingian alliance</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Apogee</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">Sack of Heraclea</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Mu'tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Fragmentation of<br>the Abbasid empire</b><br><span style="font-size: 85%;">(833–946)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Mu'tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Sack of Amorium</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li>

<li><a href="Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a>

<ul><li><a href="Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Kharijite_Rebellion_(866%E2%80%93896)" title="Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)">Kharijite Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></li>

<li><a href="Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></li>

<li><a href="Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Abbasid revival</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Mu'tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muwaffaq" title="Al-Muwaffaq">al-Muwaffaq</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mu'tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Collapse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li>

<li><a href="Mu'nis_al-Muzaffar" title="Mu'nis al-Muzaffar">Mu'nis al-Muzaffar</a></li>

<li><a href="Abu'l-Hasan_Ali_ibn_al-Furat" title="Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat">Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat</a></li>

<li><a href="Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_al-Jarrah" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah">Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah</a></li>

<li><a href="Qarmatian_invasion_of_Iraq" title="Qarmatian invasion of Iraq">Qarmatian invasion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Mecca_(930)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Mecca (930)">Sack of Mecca</a></li>

<li><a href="Bajkam" title="Bajkam">Bajkam</a></li>

<li><a href="Abu_Abdallah_al-Baridi" title="Abu Abdallah al-Baridi">Abu Abdallah al-Baridi</a></li>

<li><a href="Nasir_al-Dawla" title="Nasir al-Dawla">Nasir al-Dawla</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="Buyid" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyid">Buyid</a> period</b><br><span style="font-size: 85%;">(946–1055)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a>

<ul><li><a href="Baghdad_Manifesto" title="Baghdad Manifesto">Baghdad Manifesto</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Buyid emirs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mu'izz_al-Dawla" title="Mu'izz al-Dawla">Mu'izz al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Izz_al-Dawla" title="Izz al-Dawla">Izz al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="'Adud_al-Dawla" title="'Adud al-Dawla">'Adud al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Samsam_al-Dawla" title="Samsam al-Dawla">Samsam al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharaf_al-Dawla" title="Sharaf al-Dawla">Sharaf al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Baha_al-Dawla" title="Baha al-Dawla">Baha al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Sultan_al-Dawla" title="Sultan al-Dawla">Sultan al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Musharrif_al-Dawla" title="Musharrif al-Dawla">Musharrif al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Jalal_al-Dawla" title="Jalal al-Dawla">Jalal al-Dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Abu_Kalijar" title="Abu Kalijar">Abu Kalijar</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Malik_al-Rahim" title="Al-Malik al-Rahim">al-Malik al-Rahim</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> period</b><br><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1055–1157)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Seljuk sultans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tughril" class="mw-redirect" title="Tughril">Tughril</a></li>

<li><a href="Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a></li>

<li><a href="Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahmud_I_of_Great_Seljuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud I of Great Seljuk">Mahmud I</a></li>

<li><a href="Berkyaruq" title="Berkyaruq">Berkyaruq</a></li>

<li><a href="Malik-Shah_II" title="Malik-Shah II">Malik-Shah II</a></li>

<li><a href="Muhammad_I_Tapar" title="Muhammad I Tapar">Muhammad I</a></li>

<li><a href="Ahmad_Sanjar" title="Ahmad Sanjar">Ahmad Sanjar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Final period</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1157–1258)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Caliphs7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Caliphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mustansir_(Baghdad)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)">al-Mustansir</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mustansiriya_Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya Madrasah</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Al-Musta'sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a>

<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Sack of Baghdad</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: left;"><b>Aftermath</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abbasid_caliphs_of_Cairo" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphs of Cairo">Abbasid caliphs of Cairo</a> under the <a href="Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Arminiya" title="Arminiya">Arminiya</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Bahrayn</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Barqa</a></li>

<li><a href="Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li>

<li><a href="Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Sawad" title="Sawad">Sawad</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)" title="Al-Jazira (caliphal province)">Jazira</a></li>

<li><a href="Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a></li>

<li><a href="Greater_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Sind" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Sind">Sindh</a></li>

<li><a href="Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Syria</a>

<ul><li><a href="Al-Awasim" title="Al-Awasim">Awasim</a></li>

<li><a href="Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Jund al-Urdunn</a></li>

<li><a href="Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Jund Dimashq</a></li>

<li><a href="Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Jund Filastin</a></li>

<li><a href="Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Jund Qinnasrin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a></li>

<li><a href="Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Government_and_military87" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Government and military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Palace and central government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amir_al-umara" title="Amir al-umara">Amir al-umara</a></li>

<li><a href="Barid" title="Barid">Barid</a></li>

<li><a href="Hajib" title="Hajib">Hajib</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Harem</a></li>

<li><a href="Mazalim" title="Mazalim">Mazalim</a></li>

<li>Officials</li>

<li><a href="Robe_of_honour" title="Robe of honour">Robe of honour</a> and <a href="Tiraz" title="Tiraz">tiraz</a></li>

<li><a href="Shurta" title="Shurta">Shurta</a></li>

<li><a href="Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">Vizier</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Financial administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Divan" title="Divan">Diwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Kharaj" title="Kharaj">Kharaj</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">Abna al-dawla</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li>

<li>Battles</li>

<li>Commanders</li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law87" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Islam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mu'tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> and <a href="Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Hanafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafism">Hanafism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbalism">Hanbalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Shafi'i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'ism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sunni_Revival" title="Sunni Revival">Sunni Revival</a></li>

<li><a href="Shi'a_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a Islam">Shi'a Islam</a>

<ul><li><a href="Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a></li>

<li><a href="Isma'ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a></li>

<li><a href="Shi'a_Century" title="Shi'a Century">Shi'a Century</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li>

<li>Christianity</li>

<li>Jews and Judaism</li>

<li><a href="Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>Architecture</li>

<li>Literature</li>

<li>Musicians</li>

<li>Science and learning

<ul><li><a href="Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">Graeco-Arabic translation movement</a></li>

<li><a href="House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights260" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights260" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><i><a href="One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Translations_of_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="Translations of One Thousand and One Nights">Translations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Les_mille_et_une_nuits" title="Les mille et une nuits">Les mille et une nuits</a></i> (1704–1717)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Book_of_the_Thousand_Nights_and_a_Night" title="The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night">The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night</a></i> (1885–1888)</li>

<li><i><a href="Le_livre_des_mille_nuits_et_une_nuit" title="Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit">Le livre des mille nuits et une nuit</a></i> (1926–1932)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_stories_within_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights">Stories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abu_al-Husn_and_His_Slave-Girl_Tawaddud" title="Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud">Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud</a></li>

<li><a href="Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ali_Baba_and_the_Forty_Thieves" title="Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves">Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Ebony_Horse" title="The Ebony Horse">The Ebony Horse</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Fisherman_and_the_Jinni" title="The Fisherman and the Jinni">The Fisherman and the Jinni</a></li>

<li><a href="Hassan_of_Basra" title="Hassan of Basra">Hassan of Basra</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinbad_the_Sailor#The_tales" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Sisters_Envious_of_Their_Cadette" title="The Sisters Envious of Their Cadette">The Sisters Envious of Their Cadette</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Three_Apples" title="The Three Apples">The Three Apples</a></li>

<li><a href="Abou_Hassan_(story)" title="Abou Hassan (story)">Abou Hassan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ahmed_and_Paribanou" title="Ahmed and Paribanou">Ahmed and Paribanou</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights_characters" title="List of One Thousand and One Nights characters">Characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a></li>

<li><a href="Badroulbadour" title="Badroulbadour">Badroulbadour</a></li>

<li><a href="Scheherazade" title="Scheherazade">Scheherazade</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legendary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hatim_al-Tai" title="Hatim al-Tai">Hatim al-Tai</a></li>

<li><a href="Khidr" title="Khidr">Khidr</a></li>

<li><a href="Ma'n_ibn_Za'ida_al-Shaybani" title="Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani">Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani</a></li>

<li><a href="Sayf_ibn_Dhi_Yazan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan">Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan</a></li>

<li><a href="Shaddad" title="Shaddad">Shaddad ibn 'Ad</a></li>

<li><a href="Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a></li>

<li><a href="Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusuf" title="Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf">Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf</a></li>

<li><a href="Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a></li>

<li><a href="Ibrahim_al-Mawsili" title="Ibrahim al-Mawsili">Ibrahim al-Mawsili</a></li>

<li><a href="Ishaq_al-Mawsili" title="Ishaq al-Mawsili">Ishaq al-Mawsili</a></li>

<li><a href="Ja'far_ibn_Yahya" title="Ja'far ibn Yahya">Ja'far ibn Yahya</a></li>

<li><a href="Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a></li>

<li><a href="Shirin" title="Shirin">Shirin</a></li>

<li><a href="Zubaidah_bint_Ja'far" title="Zubaidah bint Ja'far">Zubaidah bint Ja'far</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1924_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1924 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1924)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Adventures_of_Prince_Achmed" title="The Adventures of Prince Achmed">The Adventures of Prince Achmed</a></i> (1926)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1940_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1940)</li>

<li><i><a href="Arabian_Nights_(1942_film)" title="Arabian Nights (1942 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (1942)</li>

<li><i><a href="Baghdad_Ka_Chor" title="Baghdad Ka Chor">Baghdad Ka Chor</a></i> (1946)</li>

<li><i><a href="La_Rosa_di_Bagdad" title="La Rosa di Bagdad">La Rosa di Bagdad</a></i> (1949)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Thief_of_Bagdad_(1952_film)" title="The Thief of Bagdad (1952 film)">The Thief of Bagdad</a></i> (1952)</li>

<li><i><a href="Baghdad_Thirudan" title="Baghdad Thirudan">Baghdad Thirudan</a></i> (1960)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Thief_of_Baghdad_(1961_film)" title="The Thief of Baghdad (1961 film)">The Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (1961)</li>

<li><i><a href="Baghdad_Gaja_Donga" title="Baghdad Gaja Donga">Baghdad Gaja Donga</a></i> (1968)</li>

<li><i><a href="A_Thousand_and_One_Nights_(1969_film)" title="A Thousand and One Nights (1969 film)">A Thousand and One Nights</a></i> (1969)</li>

<li><i><a href="Arabian_Nights_(1974_film)" title="Arabian Nights (1974 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (1974)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Thief_of_Baghdad_(1978_film)" title="The Thief of Baghdad (1978 film)">The Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (1978)</li>

<li><i><a href="Ajooba" title="Ajooba">Ajooba</a></i> (1991)</li>

<li><i><a href="Arabian_Nights_(2015_film)" title="Arabian Nights (2015 film)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (2015)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Aladdin</li>

<li>Sinbad</li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Alif_Laila" title="Alif Laila">Alif Laila</a></i> (1993–1997)</li>

<li><i><a href="Scooby-Doo!_in_Arabian_Nights" title="Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights">Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights</a></i> (1994)</li>

<li><i><a href="Arabian_Nights_(miniseries)" title="Arabian Nights (miniseries)">Arabian Nights</a></i> (2000)</li>

<li><i><a href="Thief_of_Baghdad_(TV_series)" title="Thief of Baghdad (TV series)">Thief of Baghdad</a></i> (2000–2001)</li>

<li><i><a href="1001_Nights_(TV_series)" title="1001 Nights (TV series)">1001 Nights</a></i> (2011)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Le_calife_de_Bagdad" title="Le calife de Bagdad">Le calife de Bagdad</a></i> (1800)</li>

<li><i><a href="Abu_Hassan" title="Abu Hassan">Abu Hassan</a></i> (1811)</li>

<li><a href="Ali_Baba_(Cherubini)" title="Ali Baba (Cherubini)"><i>Ali Baba</i> (Cherubini)</a> (1833)</li>

<li><i><a href="Der_Barbier_von_Bagdad" title="Der Barbier von Bagdad">Der Barbier von Bagdad</a></i> (1858)</li>

<li><i><a href="La_statue" title="La statue">La statue</a></i> (1861)</li>

<li><a href="Ali-Baba_(Lecocq)" title="Ali-Baba (Lecocq)"><i>Ali-Baba</i> (Lecocq)</a> (1887)</li>

<li><i><a href="M%C3%A2rouf%2C_savetier_du_Caire" title="Mârouf, savetier du Caire">Mârouf, savetier du Caire</a></i> (1914)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Scheherazade_(Rimsky-Korsakov)" title="Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov)">Scheherazade</a></i> Op. 35 (1888)</li>

<li><i><a href="Aladdin_(Nielsen)" title="Aladdin (Nielsen)">Aladdin</a></i> (1918–1919)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="Recollections_of_the_Arabian_Nights" title="Recollections of the Arabian Nights">Recollections of the Arabian Nights</a>" (1830)</li>

<li>"<a href="The_Thousand-and-Second_Tale_of_Scheherazade" title="The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade">The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade</a>" (1845)</li>

<li><i><a href="New_Arabian_Nights" title="New Arabian Nights">New Arabian Nights</a></i> (1882)</li>

<li><i><a href="Slaves_of_Sleep" title="Slaves of Sleep">Slaves of Sleep</a></i> (1939)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Eighth_Voyage_of_Sindbad" title="The Eighth Voyage of Sindbad">The Eighth Voyage of Sindbad</a></i> (1964)</li>

<li><i><a href="Chimera_(Barth_novel)#Dunyazadiad" title="Chimera (Barth novel)">Dunyazadiad</a></i> (1972)</li>

<li><i><a href="Arabian_Nights_and_Days" title="Arabian Nights and Days">Arabian Nights and Days</a></i> (1979)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Last_Voyage_of_Somebody_the_Sailor" title="The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor">The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor</a></i> (1991)</li>

<li><i><a href="Two_Years_Eight_Months_and_Twenty-Eight_Nights" title="Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights">Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights</a></i> (2015)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_stories_within_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights">Stories (Burton translation)</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_works_influenced_by_One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="List of works influenced by One Thousand and One Nights">Works influenced by</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ghoul" title="Ghoul">Ghoul</a></li>

<li><a href="Ifrit" title="Ifrit">Ifrit</a></li>

<li><a href="Magic_carpet" title="Magic carpet">Magic carpet</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_sesame" title="Open sesame">Open sesame</a></li>

<li><a href="Shahrokh_(mythical_bird)" title="Shahrokh (mythical bird)">Shahrokh</a></li>

<li><a href="Aladdin_(franchise)" title="Aladdin (franchise)"><i>Aladdin</i> (franchise)</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Thief_and_the_Cobbler" title="The Thief and the Cobbler">The Thief and the Cobbler</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="One_Hundred_and_One_Nights_(book)" title="One Hundred and One Nights (book)">One Hundred and One Nights</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131002#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2648" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131002#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2648" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000012768&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/31fhlxfm5gblv7v">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810680102305606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text external" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/148388">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007306719805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/5d761136-95cc-40bc-a872-05d5709e7a6e">KulturNav</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1711458">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118863096.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118863096">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029334942">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/harunurresid">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/person/1554d10e-ef8e-4700-beca-46c62700cdea">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-30" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Harun_al-Rashid&oldid=1303417124">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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